半导体业发展史编辑本段回目录
前言
自从有人类以来,已经过了上百万年的岁月。社会的进步可以用当时人类使用的器物来代表,从远古的石器时代、到铜器,再进步到铁器时代。现今,以硅为原料的电子元件产值,则超过了以钢为原料的产值,人类的历史因而正式进入了一个新的时代,也就是硅的时代。硅所代表的正是半导体元件,包括记忆元件、微处理机、逻辑元件、光电元件与侦测器等等在内,举凡电视、电话、电脑、电冰箱、汽车,这些半导体元件无时无刻都在为我们服务。
硅是地壳中最常见的元素,许多石头的主要成分都是二氧化硅,然而,经过数百道制程做出的积体电路,其价值可达上万美金;把石头变成硅晶片的过程是一项点石成金的成就,也是近代科学的奇蹟!
在日本,有人把半导体比喻为工业社会的稻米,是近代社会一日不可或缺的。在国防上,惟有扎实的电子工业基础,才有强大的国防能力,1991年的波斯湾战争中,美国已经把新一代电子武器发挥得淋漓尽致。从1970年代以来,美国与日本间发生多次贸易摩擦,但最后在许多项目美国都妥协了,但是为了半导体,双方均不肯轻易让步,最后两国政府慎重其事地签订了协议,足证对此事的重视程度,这是因为半导体工业发展的成败,关系着国家的命脉,不可不慎。在台湾,半导体工业是新竹科学园区的主要支柱,半导体公司也是最赚钱的企业,台湾如果要成为明日的科技硅岛,半导体工业是我们必经的途径。
半导体的起源
在二十世纪的近代科学,特别是量子力学发展知道金属材料拥有良好的导电与导热特性,而陶瓷材料则否,性质出来之前,人们对于四周物体的认识仍然属于较为巨观的瞭解,那时已经介于这两者之间的,就是半导体材料。
英国科学家法拉第(MIChael Faraday,1791~1867),在电磁学方面拥有许多贡献,但较不为人所知的,则是他在1833年发现的其中一种半导体材料:硫化银,因为它的电阻随着温度上升而降低,当时只觉得这件事有些奇特,并没有激起太大的火花;然而,今天我们已经知道,随着温度的提升,晶格震动越厉害,使得电阻增加,但对半导体而言,温度上升使自由载子的浓度增加,反而有助于导电,这也是半导体一个非常重要的物理性质。
1874年,德国的布劳恩(Ferdinand Braun,1850~1918),注意到硫化物的电导率与所加电压的方向有关,这就是半导体的整流作用。但直到1906年,美国电机发明家匹卡(G. W. PICkard,1877~1956),才发明了第一个固态电子元件:无线电波侦测器(cat’s whisker),它使用金属与硅或硫化铅相接触所产生的整流功能,来侦测无线电波。在整流理论方面,德国的萧特基(Walter Schottky,1886~1976)在1939年,于「德国物理学报」发表了一篇有关整流理论的重要论文,做了许多推论,他认为金属与半导体间有能障(potential barrier)的存在,其主要贡献就在于精确计算出这个能障的形状与宽度。至于现在为大家所接受的整流理论,则是1942年,由索末菲(Arnold Sommerfeld, 1868~1951)的学生贝特(Hans Bethe,1906~ )所发展出来,他提出的就是热电子发射理论(thermionic emission),这些具有较高能量的电子,可越过能障到达另一边,其理论也与实验结果较为符合。在半导体领域中,与整流理论同等重要的,就是能带理论。布洛赫(Felix
BLOCh,1905~1983)在这方面做出了重要的贡献,其定理是将电子波函数加上了週期性的项,首开能带理论的先河。另一方面,德国人佩尔斯(Rudolf Peierls, 1907~ ) 于1929年,则指出一个几乎完全填满的能带,其电特性可以用一些带正电的电荷来解释,这就是电洞概念的滥觞;他后来提出的微扰理论,解释了能隙(Energy gap)存在。
电晶体的发明
早在1930与1940年代,使用半导体制作固态放大器的想法就持续不绝;第一个有实验结果的放大器是1938年,由波欧(Robert Pohl, 1884~1976)与赫希(Rudolf Hilsch)所做的,使用的是溴化钾晶体与钨丝做成的闸极,尽管其操作频率只有一赫兹,并无实际用途,却证明了类似真空管的固态三端子元件的实用性。
二次大战后,美国的贝尔实验室(Bell Lab),决定要进行一个半导体方面的计画,目标自然是想做出固态放大器,它们在1945年7月,成立了固态物理的研究部门,经理正是萧克莱(William Shockley, 1910~1989)与摩根(Stanley Morgan)。由于使用场效应(field effect)来改变电导的许多实验都失败了,巴丁(John Bardeen,1908~1991)推定是因为半导体具有表面态(surface state)的关系,为了避开表面态的问题,1947年11月17日,巴丁与布莱登(Walter Brattain 1902~1987)在硅表面滴上水滴,用涂了蜡的钨丝与硅接触,再加上一伏特的电压,发现流经接点的电流增加了!但若想得到足够的功率放大,相邻两接触点的距离要接近到千分之二英吋以下。12月16日,布莱登用一块三角形塑胶,在塑胶角上贴上金箔,然后用刀片切开一条细缝,形成了两个距离很近的电极,其中,加正电压的称为射极
(emitter),负电压的称为集极 (collector),塑胶下方接触的锗晶体就是基极 (base),构成第一个点接触电晶体 (point contact transistor),1947年12月23日,他们更进一步使用点接触电晶体制作出一个语音放大器,该日因而成为电晶体正式发明的重大日子。
另一方面,就在点接触电晶体发明整整一个月后,萧克莱想到使用p-n接面来制作接面电晶体 (junction transistor) 的方法,在萧克莱的构想中,使用半导体两边的n型层来取代点接触电晶体的金属针,藉由调节中间p型层的电压,就能调控电子或电洞的流动,这是一种进步很多的电晶体,也称为双极型电晶体
(bipolar transistor),但以当时的技术,还无法实际制作出来。
电晶体的确是由于科学发明而创造出来的一个新元件,但是工业界在1950年代为了生产电晶体,却碰到许多困难。1951年,西方电器公司(Western
ElectrIC)开始生产商用的锗接点电晶体,1952年4月,西方电器、雷神(Raytheon)、美国无线电(RCA与奇异(GE)等公司,则生产出商用的双极型电晶体。但直到1954年5月,第一颗以硅做成的电晶体才由美国德州仪器公司(Texas Instruments)开发成功;约在同时,利用气体扩散来把杂质掺入半导体的技术也由贝尔实验室与奇异公司研发出来;在1957年底,各界已制造出六百种以上不同形式的电晶体,使用于包括无线电、收音机、电子计算机甚至助听器等等电子产品。
早期制造出来的电晶体均属于高台式的结构。1958年,快捷半导体公司 (Fairchild SemIConductor)发展出平面工艺技术(planar technology),藉着氧化、黄光微影、蚀刻、金属蒸镀等技巧,可以很容易地在硅晶片的同一面制作半导体元件。1960年,磊晶(epitaxy)技术也由贝尔实验室发展出来了。至此,半导体工业获得了可以批次(batch)生产的能力,终于站稳脚步,开始快速成长。
积体电路
积体电路就是把许多分立元件制作在同一个半导体晶片上所形成的电路,早在1952年,英国的杜默 (Geoffrey W. A. Dummer) 就提出积体电路的构想。1958年9月12日,德州仪器公司(Texas Instruments)的基尔比 (Jack Kilby, 1923~ ),细心地切了一块锗作为电阻,再用一块pn接面做为电容,制造出一个震荡器的电路,并在1964年获得专利,首度证明了可以在同一块半导体晶片上能包含不同的元件。1964年,快捷半导体(Fairchild SemIConductor)的诺宜斯(Robert Noyce,1927~1990),则使用平面工艺方法,即藉着蒸镀金属、微影、蚀刻等方式,解决了积体电路中,不同元件间导线连结的问题。
积体电路的第一个商品是助听器,发表于1963年12月,当时用的仍是双极型电晶体;1970年,通用微电子(General MICroelectronics)与通用仪器公司 (General Instruments),解决了硅与二氧化硅界面间大量表面态的问题,开发出金氧半电晶体 (metal-oxide-semiconductor,MOS);因为金氧半电晶体比起双极型电晶体,功率较低、集积度高,制程也比较简单,因而成为后来大型积体电路的基本元件。
60年代发展出来的平面工艺,可以把越来越多的金氧半元件放在一块硅晶片上,从1960年的不到十个元件,倍数成长到1980年的十万个,以及1990年约一千万个,这个每年加倍的现象称为莫尔定律 (Moore’s law),是莫尔(Gordon Moore)在1964年的一次演讲中提出的,后来竟成了事实。

超大型积体电路
在1970年代,决定半导体工业发展方向的,有两个最重要的因素,那就是半导体记忆体 (semIConductor memory) 与微处理机 (micro processor)。在微处理机方面,1968年,诺宜斯和莫尔成立了英代尔 (Intel) 公司,不久,葛洛夫 (Andrew Grove) 也加入了,1969年,一个日本计算机公司比吉康 (Busicom) 和英代尔接触,希望英代尔生产一系列计算机晶片,但当时任职于英代尔的霍夫 (Macian E. Hoff) 却设计出一个单一可程式化晶片,1971年11月15日,世界上第一个微处理器4004诞生了,它包括一个四位元的平行加法器、十六个四位元的暂存器、一个储存器 (aCCumulator) 与一个下推堆叠 (push-down stack),共计约二千三百个电晶体;4004与其他唯读记忆体、移位暂存器与随机存取记忆体,结合成MCS-4微电脑系统;从此之后,各种集积度更高、功能更强的微处理器开始快速发展,对电子业产生巨大影响。三十年后的今天,英代尔的Pentium
III已经包含了一千万个以上的电晶体。
毫无疑问的,记忆体晶片与微处理器同等的重要,1965年,快捷公司的施密特 (J. D. Schmidt) 使用金氧半技术做成实验性的随机存取记忆体。1969年,英代尔公司推出第一个商业性产品,这是一个使用硅闸极、p型通道的256位元随机存取记忆体。记忆体发展过程中最重要的一步,就是1969年,IBM的迪纳
(R. H. Dennard) 发明了只需一个电晶体和一个电容器,就可以储存一个位元的记忆单元;由于结构简单,密度又高,现今半导体制程的发展常以动态随机存取记忆体的容量为指标。大致而言,1970年就有1K的产品;1974年进步到4K
(闸极线宽十微米);1976年16K (五微米);1979年64K (三微米);1983年256K(一点五微米);1986年1M (一点二微米);1989年4M (零点八微米);1992年16M (零点五微米);1995年64M (零点三五微米);1998年到256M (零点二五微米),大约每三年进步一个世代,2001年就迈入十亿位元大关。
根据国际半导体科技进程 (International Technology RoaDMAp for SemIConductor) 的推估,西元2014年,最小线宽可达0.035微米,记忆体容量更高达两亿五千六百万位元,尽管新制程、新技术的开发越形困难,但半导体业在未来十五年内,相信仍会迅速的发展下去。
世界半导体业发展大趋势编辑本段回目录
15年来始终稳居世界半导体公司龙头老大的Intel公司,只在2001年世界半导体市场狂跌32%之际营收曾跟着滑落21%,随后连续4年保持增长态势。可是,当2006年世界半导体市场增长8.5%的背景下,Intel的营收却又下降了9.5%,利纯更陡挫42%,降幅不小。减收减益虽有种种原因,但这种情况史所少见。一叶知秋,无论如何说明今天半导体业已是经营不易,世界半导体业发生变局。
对于今年世界半导体市场的走势,也是见仁见智,各执一是。iSuppli公司预测2007年将增长10.6%,SIA预测增长10%,Gartner预测增长9.2%,WSTS预测增长8.5%,而德意志证券公司预测仅增长3.6%。以美国为中心的世界经济的明显趋缓,作为拉动世界IT市场的BRICs(巴西、俄、印、中新兴经济发展大国)的牵引力有所减弱。
半导体杀手级应用包括PC、移动电话和平板电视三大产品市场,大致只是适度增长的模样。据IDC公司调查,2006年世界PC出货量2.29亿台,2007年将增长11.3%,达2.55亿台。Gartner公司把2007年的PC出货量由2.55亿台下调到2.53亿台。尽管Microsoft公司新推出了Vista操作系统,但由于更新成本很大(据传,在中国需2000元人民币,加上存储扩容、显示改宽屏共需6000元)。世界各地企业需求不透明,因此,不可能再度出现像以往推出新操作系统那般的热烈场面;销量中还包含100美元的PC,销量的增加并不能看作销售值的成长。2006年世界PC市场的成长中,七八成都来自新兴经济大国,这一市场2007年也可能出现减速。

图1 世界PC出货量
据日本电子信息技术协会报道,在世界65亿人口中,2006年手机拥有者已达25.8亿人,占近40%,2007年可望增长到29.4亿人,普及率进一步提高到45%。普及率和人均GDP的大小有一定关系,目前意大利普及率最高,达120%,欧洲主要国家已接近100%,美日在70%左右,中国30%,印度近10%。
目前世界最大的手机市场在中国和印度,截止到2006年9月的1年时间里,中国新增用户5500万,印度6200万。世界手机市场2006年曾快速增长20%,达9.4亿部,2007年将陡降到6.4%,需求量仍可达10亿部。增长速度放慢,说明市场走向成熟。3G已经启动,日本用户已超60%。BRICs尚处普及过程,多用入门级产品,而在欧美日成熟市场,正走向高像素拍照、大容量存储和电视手机,企业用手机将转向多功能手机。面对这种情况,有人说今天与其强调杀手级应用(Killer application),倒不如追求杀手级功能(Killer function)。
世界平板电视2006年狂增60%,达3600万台,2007年同样可能出现减速,增长40%,达5000万台。有些国家市场正逐渐走向饱和,同时,由于普及速度加快,价格大降,导致销售值跟不上销售量的增长,企业难于获利,是业界面临的一大问题。
牵引NAND flash的MP3的世界销售量已突破1亿个,一般而言,市场达到5000~6000万个,即已趋向饱和,而MP3正攀向1.5亿个,已可称其为NAND flash的杀手级应用产品,肯定会影响到NAND未来的发展。2006年世界NAND flash市场比上年增长10.7%,达117亿美元。以后NAND虽有望取代硬盘而成为新型PC的存储装置,而NOR型flash更相形失色。总之,未来几年flash仅可望以7.8%的速度增长。
10年来PC用MPU的集成度增加了近10倍,超过了10亿晶体管,主流工艺正从90nm向65nm进军(图2),从而实现了PC的小型化,高功能化和低价格化。世界MPU已完成了64位的升级,MPU已不再单纯追求高时钟频率,而转向性能的提高,因而实现了双核化。去年末Intel和AMD还都已做好了提供4核MPU的准备。在这急速的技术革新中MPU迎来了新局面。世界MPU市场2005年曾增长16%,达到341亿美元,而2006年因受单价下落等影响,转而下降了5%,达325亿美元,且预计2005~09年间的年均增长率仅为5.5%,除Microcontroller外,是各类产品中增速最低的,无怪以MPU为主打产品的Intel公司面临困局,决定裁员万人,亟需重新整合。

图2 MPU技术的发展
DRAM的应用从PC到服务器、数字家电、移动电话、汽车电子正不断扩大,成为导体市场上增长最快的产品。SIA预计,2006年世界DRAM窜升29%,达330亿美元(iSuppli公司报道,增长36%,达338亿美元),未来几年还会以2位数(10.2%,在各半导体主要产品中仅次于DSP的12.7%)的年平均增长率前进。DRAM还是2006年半导体业中获利最多的产品之一,经营利润高达45%。把占了世界市场99%的10大DRAM生产厂商无不生意兴隆,获利多多,其中获利最高的是力晶、三星和Hynix,由于他们的继续大力投资,2007年将使其他竞争对手感到压力,同时也有产能过剩之虞。

图3 世界DRAM的容量及出货量

图4 DRAM速度的发展
DRAM的存储正不断向着大容量化发展,从512Mb向着1Gb发展,并还会继续向着2Gb、4 Gb、8 Gb前进。每种产品的出货量也有逐渐增大之势(图3)。2006年采用DDR2 DRAM的传送速度已达800Mbps,看来,DDR3即将上市(图4)。当然,产品加工工艺也将随之不断改进,2006年采用的70nm技术已占全部加工工艺的90%,而2007年55nm技术即将上升到45%,2008年55nm技术占50%多,而45nm技术会上升到近40%,70nm已仅占10%,可见进步速度之快(图5)。

图5 DRAM加工工艺的发展
其实半导体业中受困公司不止Intel一家,欧洲半导体名门Philips,以往常居世界10大半导体公司之列,不得已卖身一家投资公司,德国Infineon公司的DRAM部门因严重亏损而变身,成为受控的独立公司Qimonda,欧洲3大半导体公司2家出现问题。Motorola的Freescale也已出卖。
日本半导体厂商的生产1987年曾占世界市场半壁江山,独占50%的份额,而后一路走低,至今已只剩下20%。而且利润率不高,只在个位数,甚至负增长,不及美韩公司可在20%以上。因此,日本一直在讨论半导体业如何复苏的问题。据iSuppli预测,未来到2015年,世界半导体消费地仍以欧美为主,BRICs增长迅速,日本处于第三层面(表4)。

图6 世界半导体设备的投资
今后半导体业的竞争无疑将更趋激烈,竞争的胜负将首先反映在巨额投资的战斗方面,哪家公司经受不起,即将被无情淘汰。据SEMI报道,2006年世界半导体制造设备市场比上年大幅增长23.6%,达406亿美元,是近年少有的好年景,但今年将仅略增3.6%,达421亿美元,明年反弹至13.3%,2009年世界市场可望突破500亿美元,2005~09年的年均增长率11%,增长可谓迅速,速度超过半导体业本身,同时也说明企业的负担之重。
从近几年的投资看,日本一直是最多的,其次是韩、台各地区,当然,这反映了它们对半导体业的重视程度。Intel和三星都是投资最多的,2007年都在55亿美元左右。各类设备中,圆片加工处理设备的投资占首位,2006年激增26%,达288亿美元,组封装设备增长13%,24亿美元,测试设备增长22%,达64.5亿美元。
另一方面,当前企业竞争的核心则在规模和价格,最终是性价比,那家公司产量大、价格便宜,就能挺得住。尽管半导体业垄断程度已很高,但今后还可能进一步走向垄断。
半导体加工已深深进入纳米时代,不仅正转向65nm,而且已在着手开发45、32nm技术。使用碳纳米管材料的新器件和使用纳米加工技术的光元件正在开发之中。AV设备、PC和通信/网络正在融合,诸多数字设备进入了可以相互连接的时代。移动电话的多功能化及和PC融合,可望出现手持设备。这为半导体开拓了新的应用。
一句话,半导体业已进入成熟期,经营困难,发展趋缓都是必然的。综观世界电子工业的发展,有人发现是15年一大变。1970~85年是计算机时代,以IBM为代表从大型机、小型机到PC,获利丰厚,发展迅速,但近年已大不如前,IBM已把PC事业卖给联想;1985~2000年是半导体时代,以Intel、三星、东芝等为代表,活力四射,盈余耀眼,期间半导体产业增长近20倍,达到2000亿美元,到2000年以前的50年间,世界半导体业的年平均增长速度为13%,而2000年以后已降到个位数,公司利润下降;2000~2015年将是电子材料的时代,电子材料成为各种数字化器材的核心,目前公司经营利润都在10%~20%之间,前景看好。
1975
Altair, the first personal computer, goes on market.
Bill Gates and Paul Allen launch Microsoft.
1976
Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs found Apple Computer.
The first word-processing program, Electric Pencil, is unveiled.
1977
U.S. semiconductor company pioneers form Semiconductor Industry Association.
Monolithic Memories Inc. invents field programmable logic, the first logic devise that can be programmed by users.
SIA takes over administration of the Semiconductor Trade Statistics Program (STSP); now known as the World Semiconductor Trade Statistics (WSTS).
1978
SIA forms 6 major committees on: trade policy, education, worker safety, trade statistics, investment and capital formation, and a technical advisory committee.
Micron opens in Boise, Idaho as a semiconductor design consulting firm.
TI introduces the first single-chip speech synthesizer. Its first use: The Speak & Spell Toy.
1979
Motorola introduces the 16-bit microprocessor. Its two-million-calculations-per-second capability is adopted by Apple Computer for its Macintosh PCs.
Bell Labs introduces a single-chip digital signal processor that performs speech compression, filtering, error corrections and other functions much faster and better than multiple chips.
The semiconductor industry surpasses $10 billion in sales.
1980
SIA commissions a major research study by Chase Financial Policy on the cost of capital in the semiconductor industry; which finds U.S. firms facing significant disadvantages compared to their international competitors.
IBM enters the PC business with a line of desktop PCs, later to become the single largest use for microprocessors.
Motorola introduces first pager to incorporate a microprocessor, allowing longer battery life and the ability to have more pagers on a network.
1981
In response to SIA advocacy efforts, the U.S. and Japan lower semiconductor tariffs to 4.2 percent.
Hewlett-Packard introduces the first scientific pocket calculator. It sent slide rule manufacturers out of business.
LSI Logic introduces gate array, the first semi-custom chip.
SIA helps gain approval of the federal R&D tax credit.
1982
SIA forms Semiconductor Research Corp. (SRC) to plan, direct and fund pre-competitive silicon research programs at major universities.
Xilinx invents field programmable gate arrays, chips that can be customized by the user.
VLSI introduces standard cells, predefined circuit elements for custom chips.
1983
Motorola’s first cellular phone comes to market.
AMD introduces INT. STD. 1000.
SIA efforts lead to creation of U.S. Japan Working Group on High Tech to resolve trade issues.
The SIA Japan Chapter, made up of senior level executives from SIA member companies doing business in Japan, is created to provide and industry-to-industry dialogue between Japanese and American companies.
1984
Chip Protection Act becomes law, creating the first new form of intellectual property protection in the United States since the 19th century.
The SIA-supported Trade and Tariff Act of 1984 becomes law, authorizing negotiation of high tech trade issues and tariff elimination.
Congress revises antitrust laws to allow joint R&D consortia.
IBM develops a one-million bit RAM.
Anti-lock brakes begin using microcontrollers.
Apple introduces the Macintosh computer.
1985
U.S. and Japanese governments agree to eliminate tariffs on semiconductors. SIA files petition with U.S. government, citing unfair Japanese market barriers.
Intel drops out of DRAM business.
1986
At the urging of SIA, U.S. and Japan sign agreement to end dumping practices and open Japan’s market; yet nine of eleven U.S. DRAM manufacturers leave market, and Japan overtakes U.S. as the world’s leading semiconductor producer.
Japanese firms lose $4 billion in quest for semiconductor dominance.
Compaq unveils 386-based PCs.
Bell Labs introduces neural network chips that mimic the way some brain cells retrieve stored information and solve problems.
1987
SIA forms SEMATECH, a consortium of chip manufacturers dedicated to improving manufacturing technology.
At the urging of SIA, U.S. imposes $300 million in trade sanctions against Japan for failing to comply with antidumping agreement.
U.S. EPROM manufacturers regain worldwide lead; next to DRAM, EPROMs are most critical commodity product.
1988
With the SIA’s encouragement, the U.S. Congress approves the formation of the National Advisory Committee on Semiconductors (NACS).
Reduced Instruction Set Chip (RISC) technology becomes available commercially, allowing faster, less memory-intensive programming options.
After meeting with the SIA, the Electronic Industries Association of Japan (EIAJ) forms the Users Committee of Foreign Semiconductors (UCOM) in an effort to provide greater access for foreign suppliers in the Japan market.
The U.S. semiconductor industry reinforces its commitment to the Japan market by opening an SIA office in Tokyo, Japan.
1989
The SIA and EIAJ establish a consumer task force to discuss methods to increase foreign chip sales to Japanese consumer equipment makers.
SIA commissions a three-year $3.5 million reproductive health study to determine if some chemicals used in chip plants cause health problems.
Members of the SIA’s Health and Safety Committee and EIAJ initiate annual meetings to discuss semiconductor safety and environmental issues. These meetings are the precursor to the international ESH conferences, beginning in 1984.
1990
SIA’s Technology Strategy Committee is created to track industry technology requirements and make recommendations to the industry.
Panasonic Palmcorder is introduced using LSI Logic chips. LSI was the first U.S. company to design a chip specifically for a Japanese company’s consumer product.
Internet use tops 100,000.
1991
Japan & U.S. announce new trade agreement committing Japan to open its market to foreign semiconductors and providing a strong deterrent to dumping.
SIA is presented the prestigious "E Award" by U.S. Secretary of Commerce Robert Mosbacher for the association’s outstanding efforts to increase American exports.
1992
SIA’s reproductive health study recommends phasing out some chemicals used in manufacturing chips.
Technology experts gather to design a 15-year roadmap for national semiconductor research needs; known as the National Technology Roadmap.
Microsoft introduces Windows 3.1.
1993
Through the efforts led by the SIA, U.S. overtakes Japan in worldwide chip sales.
IBM and Motorola introduce RISC chip for PCs.
Harris Corp. introduces Monster Power ICs (MCT). They help motorized products from refrigerators to jet fighters operate more efficiently.
1994
The SIA succeeds in achieving Congressional approval of the Uruguay Round of multilateral trade negotiations that establishes the World Trade Organization (WTO), lowers semiconductor tariffs, strengthens intellectual property protection, and maintains effective antidumping provisions.
U.S. Labor Department ranks the semiconductor industry as America’s second safest, reflecting a dramatic reduction in work-related injury and illness rates among domestic semiconductor workers.
The semiconductor industry surpasses $100 billion sales.
1995
Foreign share of Japanese market exceeds 20 percent for the first time.
SIA explores the rapidly growing Chinese market in its document, "Semiconductors in China: Defining American Interest."
The SIA and EIAJ jointly announce the Emerging Applications Cooperative Project and other efforts to stimulate major design-ins and other business opportunities in Japan for foreign semiconductor manufacturers.
1996
U.S. fabrication facility growth explodes as chips become increasingly prevalent in new consumer products. High-end chips make computer networking, telephone communications and internet connections faster and smarter.
U.S. and Japan approve new trade agreement on semiconductors as foreign share in Japan approaches 30 percent. Agreement calls for the establishment of the World Semiconductor Council (WSC).
AT&T spins off Lucent, the portion of the telephone giant once known as Bell Labs.
SIA members negotiate memorandum on global warming with U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Companies agree to continue reducing their usage of ozone-depleting chemicals.
1997
SIA unveils the Focus Center Program. The new consortium is designed to tackle technology roadblocks by focusing on long-term research (eight years and beyond).
A new edition of the National Technology Roadmap is released worldwide.
The SIA, working with the U.S. government and 38 other countries, accounting for more than 92 percent of the global trade and information technology products, creates the Information Technology Agreement (ITA). The ITA eliminates duties on chips, computers and telecommunications equipment.
1998
SIA creates a Workforce Strategy Committee to address the critical need of an increased and educated workforce.
The SIA and its coalition partners successfully lobbies to secure passage of the "American Competitiveness and Workforce Improvement Act of 1998," which nearly doubles the number of foreign engineers and scientists whole will be eligible to work for technology companies in the U.S.
New SIA study shows that the semiconductor industry is the No. 1 driver of
growth for the U.S. economy, providing jobs for 260,000 people and creating an additional 1.4 millions jobs for people who provide goods and services for the industry.
U.S. chip companies command more than 50 percent of the global market.
The SIA and a coalition of high technology companies successfully lobby to secure the Securities Litigation Uniform Standard Act of 1998, which makes federal court the sole venue for hearing class action suits on securities fraud allegations against companies with rapid fluctuations in stock prices and eliminates frivolous lawsuits in state courts.
The WSC receives the 1998 Climate Protection Award from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
1999
1999 became known as the "year of recovery" for the semiconductor industry. Sales shift the demand from PCs to communications products.
The SIA and member companies lobby extensively to achieve the top 1999 legislative priority with the passage of the Y2K bill to limit frivolous lawsuits against American businesses and industries.
The 1st two Focus Centers become fully operational at UC Berkeley and
Georgia Tech.
The U.S. and China agreed to the terms of China’s accession to the WTO.
SIA establishes a presence in China by joining other electronic associations in the U.S. Information Technology Office in Beijing (USITO).
SIA successfully lobbies for an R&D tax credit extension for an additional five years.
2000
In 2000, the technology roadmap becomes international and the 2000 International Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS) is released.
Worldwide semiconductor sales exceed $200 billion for the first time in
semiconductor history.
The semiconductor industry becomes recognized by the US Bureau of Labor and ranked 2nd in the nation for the lowest injury and illness rate out of 208 durable goods manufacturing industries.
The SIA lobbies extensively for passage of Permanent Trade Relations legislation with China in order to ensure that China lowers its tariffs on semiconductors, respects intellectual property rights, allows semiconductor companies to sell directly to China without using middlemen, and eliminates investment barriers, among other measures.
SIA Board funds a major initiative to increase the number of undergraduate engineers interested in semiconductor careers.
SIA establishes a Scientific Advisory Committee (SAC), an independent panel commissioned to review existing industry data to address allegations of cancer risks among semiconductor employees.
2001
China formally joined the WTO on terms advocated by the SIA.
Two additional Focus Centers were created: "Materials, Structures and Devices" and Circuits, Systems and Software."
The National Science Foundation sees a 8 percent increase in funding.
As a result of SIA’s efforts, China begins to provide intellectual property protection for registered IC designs and eliminate its tariffs on semiconductors.
2002
SIA successfully lobbies Congress to appropriate $10.5 billion for science and technology at the Defense Department, a 12 percent increase over the prior year, along with a 2 percent increase for the Department of Energy’s Science Office.
SIA is instrumental in helping to assure that harmful legislation requiring expensing of employee stock options or minimum holding periods for executive stock grants is not enacted.
SIA scores a major victory in streamlining U.S. export controls when the President eliminates MTOPS controls on commercial export of microprocessors.
SIA helps secure Congressional passage of a $25 million technology talent expansion program that SIA had strongly advocated.
SIA embarks on Worker Health Project to determine and further minimize any potential risks to our employees.
SIA successfully advocated Congressional approval of Trade Promotion Authority (TPA).
SIA releases the 2002 International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS)
SIA publishes a commemorative book, Beyond Imagination, chronicling the semiconductor industry since its inception.
SIA honors Dr. Gordon Moore with its first-ever Lifetime Achievement Award.
2003
SIA and its partners in the High Tech Broadband Coalition win a major victory when the Federal Communications Committee decided to deregulate investment in last mile broadband facilities.
SIA successfully lobbies for Congressional approval of an 11.4 percent increase in the research budget for the National Science Foundation.
SIA and its coalition partners successfully lobby for legislation designating more than $2 billion over three years for nanotechnology research and development programs with passage in the House and approval by the Senate Commerce Committee.
